EXCRETION :

 

EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS: Excretion is a process of removing the harmful metabolic waste from the body. Human body has number of organs which throws out the excretory wastes from the body like- Skin throws out sweat, Lungs throws out carbon dioxide, Kidneys throws out nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid and so on. But when we define excretory system we speak about number of organs involved there.

Excretory system in human beings consists of one pair of kidney, one pair of ureter, one urinary bladder and one urethra.

Kidney filters the waste products from the blood. Nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid are removed from the blood in the kidneys.

Kidneys are bean shaped structure, reddish brown and are placed in the lower abdominal cavity.

Functional unit of kidney is the Nephron just like the alveoli which is the functional unit of lungs. Each kidney has nearly one million Nephron. A nephron is a complex tubular structure, it is divided into following parts- Bowman’s capsule, Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle’s , Distal convoluted tubule and finally collecting tubule.

The main function of the nephron is to filter the blood. In this process nephron returns to the body essential food materials but throws out the waste from the body.

Essential materials that are returned by the nephron and absorbed by the body are – Glucose, Vitamins, Minerals, Salts, Amino acids, etc. and the non  essential materials that are thrown out from the body are nitrogenous wastes like – urea , uric acid etc. along with water.

As we find in case of Lungs –alveoli which are surrounded by blood capillaries, same way kidney-nephrons  are also surrounded  by blood capillaries and help in the process of filtration.

A pair of ureter which is present in the excretory system connects kidneys with that of Urinary bladder. It is a tube like structure.

Urinary bladder is a muscular sac like structure, where urine gets accumulated  and moment it is filled up then by the process of micturition the urine is thrown out from the body (urinary bladder)through  Urethra.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS: In case of plants oxygen can also be considered as the excretory products.

Plants get rid of excess of water by the process of transpiration. 

In case of plants excretory products are stored as resins and gums. In most cases wastes are stored in leaves that fall off.

                                                         

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APICULTURE: UMRANGSO

APICULTURE: Collection of honey from wild bee colonies is one of the most ancient human activities and is still practiced in almost all parts of the world. Some of the earliest evidence of gathering honey from wild colonies is found in the rock painting dated to around 13.000 B.C. In Dima Hasao district of Assam mainly in Umrangso, it is practiced in moderate level and the people are also able to generate their livelihood from it.

 

Honey bees are collected from the forest areas along with their bee hives. A small portion of the beehives is kept in the trees or in the rocks so that the Honey bees can build their beehives again.

In Umrangso , rearing and extraction of Honey is done in wooden boxes made from  tree trunks. The wooden box consists of two holes on either side for the extraction of honey. It remains covered by a piece of wood when honey is not extracted. A narrow small opening is kept in the wooden box made from the trunk for the easy movement of the bees from Inside to  outside and vice versa.

Externally wooden box is coated with a layer of cow dung so that the bee hives and bees can be protected from their enemies like-wax moth(Galleria mollonella),wasp,Black ant(Componotus compressces) ,Bee eater(Morops sp.), King crow ( Dicrurus macrocerus) .

Wooden boxes are kept undisturbed for time period of three months, so that the honey bees get sufficient time to rebuild their hives.

A single honey comb is divided into several compartments called cells which are separated by wax- plates. The wax is secreted by a pair of wax gland placed vertically in the abdomen of the bees. The nectar collected is temporarily stored in the stomach of the alimentary canal. Salivary gland converts the sucrose of the nectar into glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose when come out, it get concentrated by the process of evaporation and leads to the formation of honey.

At the time of extraction of honey, a burning fire or smoke is brought near the hole of the wooden box so that the bees leave their hive.

       

The most common species of honey bee that is reared extensively is Apis indica. Other than Apis indica- Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata and Apis florea are also reared for honey. Honey has an excellent nutritive content. It contains high percentage of amino acids, vitamins, minerals, glucose, fructose, enzymes etc. It also acts as an antioxidants and also has an anti inflammatory and anti bacterial property.

Shri Lal Bahadur Chetri a leading beekeeper of this locality(Umrangso)stressed upon the need for the development of a market in Umrangso. He has been practising the rearing of bees and extracting of honey from last 40 years. It is the only source of livelihood for him. At present he has 100 boxes for rearing bees. One box in average yields him eight to ten big bottles of honey, which he then sells to the big companies in Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling and other near places. While sharing his experience he informed that five verities of bees are cultivated in Umrangso of which he is rearing four verities, he named them as Mouri, Putko, Kothauri.

Shri Chetri expressed that a cultivator need to have the knowledge of following things  to accelerate his productivity –

a)      Knowledge of nature and habits of bees.

b)      Selection of suitable location for keeping bee hives.

c)      Catching and hiving of swarms.

d)      Handling and collecting honey and

Special Thanks To : Shri Lal Bahadur Chetri, Lamu Singh Warkade

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KARBI FISHING FESTIVAL: UMRANGSO

 Karbi fishing festival is one of the most celebrated festivals of Umrangso. It is celebrated on 6^th April every year. Karbi people living in Dima Hasao or in different parts of Assam come together to celebrate this grand festival.  Karbi fishing festival is celebrated in the golf field, Umrangso where Kopili River passes by.

Karbi fishing festival also has a strong story and message to deliver. It dates   thousands of years earlier when people were localized in an area and had certain rules and regulations developed for the well being of clans in their community. People belonging to a clan considered all the members as their brothers and sisters, and therefore marriage was strictly prohibited within the clan. For example different clans like Hanse, Engti, Timung etc.- they were not allowed to marry within one clan. Like Hanse – Hanse  or Engti – Engti were prohibited to marry but marriage was solemnized between Hanse- Timung or Engti- Hanse  or vice versa. If in those days, couple belonging to a clan fall in love with each other and got married, then they had to meet strict disciplinary action. Muzadhar of the village or the Gaon bura immediately used to call for OKPRU. Okpru is a karbi word, means community fishing. Both the couple were then tied and thrown in a river. They were then termed as fish and villagers like fishermen used to catch them. After that villagers used to beat them, thrash them, drag them in water and ultimately led to death of the couple.

     

But thing started changing when Karbi King Torte Rengbonghom’s son had fallen for a girl of same clan and then the king withdrawn the death plenty to safeguard his son but isolated the couple from the village and the community. The couple had nothing to do in the community or for the community.

Okpru( fishing festival) underwent a lot of change to fit itself with the changing time. There was evolution of Okpru along with the evolving human mind. Only some years past, the site where Okpru( fishing festival) was organized, a platform was given to youths to catch fish there and then the caught fish if they would put in the bag (huk) of the girl according to their likings then villagers used to bless those couples for marriage. But rule remained the same that no marriage should be within a clan.

Presently Okpru ( fishing festival) is organized keeping in mind the traditional, cultural  and religious belief which  passed to them, in one hand and on the other hand they kept the adventure and fun linked with it like -boating, some traditional sports, food and invitees to the fishing festival as guests and chief guest. To initiate the fishing festival now a days,  Goan bura, elderly people and pujari of the locality perform  puja, they are the first ones who give  HIRU to the river water. Hiru is a karbi word means poison – which is secreted from the woody plant. This Hiru makes the fishes senseless for about 2 to 3 hours which helps easy the villagers to catch fish. After the process is completed by the elderly people and Goan bura , then the rest can go for fishing.

Okpru(fishing festival) is also differently celebrated in various Moza(locality). For example in Langku and Longtar area,  Okpru(fishing festival) is different from that of Amri area that is Umrangso.

Special Thanks to Jai Singh Durong

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DIGESTION IN HUMAN BEINGS:

 DIGESTION IN HUMAN BEINGS: Digestion in human beings starts in the mouth and ends in the Anus.At first  food is taken in the mouth cavity with the help of a bite. That bite is given by our teeth and after that food is chewed . When the grinding of the food takes place salivary amylase secreted by the salivary gland is acted over the food and turn the food into paste. This process of converting the solid food into a paste is called Mastication. Out the most vital six components of our food, Carbohydrates digestion starts in the mouth. 

From the mouth cavity the food then reaches the oesophagus. This partial digested food  which enters the oesophagus is known as Bolus. Oesophagus then undergo contraction and expansion which helps the food to reach the stomach.

In the stomach digestion of Protein takes place but the final protein digestion occurs in the small intestine. Stomach has in it gastric juice, H.Cl and mucous. There is also the occurrence of a type of bacteria in our stomach called   E.coli. H.Cl provides acidic medium in the stomach  for the digestion of protein. Gastric juice mainly contains proteolytic enzymes.

Partial digested food from the stomach that reaches the intestine is called as chyme.

Liver is the largest gland of our body. It has in it gall bladder. Gall bladder stores bile produced in the liver. At the time of digestion bile passes to the small intestine, Bile does not contain any enzyme.Bile helps in the emulsification of fats

In the small intestine final digestion of all the food materials take place. Pancreas which is positioned just above the small intestine produces pancreatic juice. At the time of digestion pancreatic juice reaches the small intestine. So all together small intestine contains - intestinal juice, which is produced by it, Pancreatic juice from Pancreas and the bile from the liver.

Finally the complex food ie. Protein, carbohydrates and Fats get digested in the small intestine. Undigested food are thrown out from the body.

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MICROSPORANGIUM AND MICROSPOROGENESIS

 Microsporangium and Microsporogenesis: - Male reproductive parts of a flower is called  Androecium. Parts of androecium are called stamens. A stamen generally has two parts anther and filament. If we make a transverse section through the anther we find it has four lobes each lobe has a sac like structure called pollen sac. Pollen sac contains in it pollen grains. 

Pollen sac are known by another name called Microsporangium. Externally the microsporangium is covered by a layer called Epidermis.Below the epidermis there is the occurance of Hypodermis. One of the hypodermal cell become very prominent with bigger cell, dense cytoplasm and is called as Archesporial cell.

Archesporial cell.undergo division to form two cells called Primary parietal cell and Primary sporogeneous cell.

Cells that are formed from the archesporial cell undergo anticlinial and periclinal division.

Due to this division of the Primary parital cell forms Endothecium, Middle layer and Tapetum.  Primary sporogeneous cell.leads to the formation of sporogenous tissue.

So total layers that are formed are  - Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layer , Tapetum.  and the sporogenous tissue. 

All of these layers have a distinct role to play in the process of  microsporogenesis.

Sporogenous tissue which is formed of Primary sporogenous cell plays an important role in the formation of spore. One of the cell of the sporogenous tissue develops bigger and denser than  that rest and is known as MMC ie. Microspore mother cell.The cell undergo meiosis to form four cells and forms Microspores,

         

         

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NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS:

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS:Other than plants, all the organisms in this world are consumer. Consumer cannot prepare their own food , they depend upon plants to get their food.So all the organisms other than plants are called as  heterotrophs . Human beings are also heterotrophs. Human beings mainly take six different types of food - they are  Protein, Carbohydrates, Fats , Vitamins, Minerals and water. Out of these six different types of food - Protein, Carbohydrates, Fats are called  complex food and other three Vitamins, Minerals and water are called simple food. Food are termed as complex and simple based on the digestion and absorption by the epithelial lining of the alimentary canal.

Even though our alimentary canal starts from mouth and ends in the anus  but there is specific site for the digestion of  each type of food. So out of six different types of food only complex food material, digestion is complicated process and we need to understand them very clearly to understand the whole  process of digestion.

Protein when get digested break down to form amino acids. Carbohydrates after digestion forms glucose and fructose and fats on digestion gives fatty acids and glycerol.

We also need to know, the source from where we get get our six components of food. 

We get Protein from - eggs, meat, fish , soybean, pulses , milk etc. 

Carbohydrates we get from  Rice, potato, maize , barley., wheat etc., 

Fats we get  from Oil, ghee, butter and all the milk products.

Minerals we get from Fruits, vegetables etc.

Vitamins from fruits, vitamins etc and  Water.

Along with these food we also need Roughage which provide us fibre for eliminating the waste from our body. Cabbage is the best example.

Now ,we also need to know function of each type food -

Protein builds our body and heals the wounds.

Carbohydrates give us energy to do our daily activites.

Fats serve as stored energy, When there is need of severe energy in the body then fats supply that energy.

Vitamins and Minerals protect our body from germs.

And water helps in transportation.

Theses are the basic knowledge in Digestion before we give our steps in knowing the mechanism of digestion in our body.

 

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HUMAN SPERM

HUMAN SPERM: Human sperm is the haploid gamete of the Male. By the process of spermatogenesis there is there is formation of sperm.Germ cells undergo Mitosis division followed by Meiosis finally haploid sperm is formed which is n, having 23 number of chromosomes. A sperm generally consist of following parts - Head , Neck, Middle piece and Tail. 

Head is a rounded or globular structure. It contains nucleus, cytoplasm and other granules. Nucleus contains chromosomes and it has in it DNA -the genetic material or the hereditary material.Externally the head is covered by a membrane . Anterior portion of the head there is the occurrence of Acrosome. Acrosome helps in dissolving the membrane that surrounds the Egg.

  

Next to Head is the Neck. Neck posses two centrioles, they are named as Proximal centriole and the Distal centriole. Proximal centrioles plays a great role in the first cleavage of the zygote and Distal centrioles helps in the formation of Axial filament.

Middle piece is more in length than Head or Neck portion. It contains Mitochondria. Mitochondria is the store house of  energy ie. ATP. This energy is needed by the sperm to swim inside the female grnital tract.

Finally we find the tail.Tail is the long slender structure which is the  cytoplasmic extension.  Tail helps in the movement of the sperm.

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RESPIRATION IN HUMANS

 Respiration in Humans; Human beings has a well defined respiratory system Air that we breathe in enters through the nostrils which are line by hairs to filter the air that enters, Nostrils are also lined with mucous which is sticky in nature and absorbs any dust and other particles that enters, After that air passes through trachea. Trachea has rings of cartilage which prevents from collapsing if air enters through  great force.

 Trachea bifurcate after descending a little and forms two bronchi . Bronchi  then enters the Lungs.and inside the lungs it branches to form fine network like structure called bronchiloes. Human being posses a pair of lungs. Functional unit of lungs is called as Alvulus ( pl.Alveoli). It is a sac or balloon like structure. Alveoli is surrounded by blood capillaries and helps in the exchange of gasses.

Process of respiration in human can be divided into two main parts - Inhalation and Exhalation or Inspiration and Expiration. In inhalation or inspiration we take oxygen from the mixture of gases and in exhalation or expiration we give out carbondioxide as waste gas from our body. Different organs of our body like ribs, diaphragm, intercostal muscles etc.plays a great role in the process of respiration.

RESPIRATION

 Respiration: Respiration is a biochemical process in which the food materials are broken down to give energy. We human beings and other higher organism  take oxygen to break down the food materials to get energy. The food that we take is glucose and glucose is six carbon molecule. In the first step six carbon compound glucose breaks down in the  cytoplasm to give pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is also called as pyruvate which is a three carbon molecule. After the formation of pyruvate, next step differ from organism to organism. In lower organism like Yeast, Bacteria etc. braking down of pyruvate takes place in absence of oxygen, this is called as fermentation and produces Energy, Ethanol and carbon dioxide. Process is also termed as Anaerobic process.

 In our case and all the higher organism Pyruvic acid breaks down to form Energy, Carbon dioxide and moisture. Here the breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in presence of oxygen so it is termed as Aerobic process.

Sometimes there may be lack of oxygen in our muscles  even though our respiration is aerobic then this type of respiration is termed as Lack of oxygen respiration. It leads to the formation of  Lactic acid and releases energy.Due to the accumulation of lactic acid it leads to the occurrence of  cramps.

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STRUCTURE OF OVUM

 

Structure Of Ovum: After the process of oogenesis -  an egg or the ovum is formed . Egg is released during the ovulation phase.

 

 Ovum is rounded, non motile cell. It is almost  free of  yolk and is called as alecithal. It has abundant cytoplasm , called ooplasm. It has a nucleus called as Germinal vesicle and there is the prominent occurrence of nucleolus. The nucleolus is surrounded by plasma membrane called  oolemma.  

There are no centrioles in the ovum. The ovum shows polarity. Its side which extrudes polar bodies called animal pole. The opposite side is called vegetal  pole. The ovum is enclosed by two additional egg coats: inner thin, transparent , non cellular zona pellucid and outer thick corona radiate.  

Zona  Pellucida is secreted by ovum itself and is called primary egg membrane. It is formed of three different glycol proteins. The corona radiate is formed of radically elongated follicular cells.

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GAMETOGENESIS : OOGENESIS

 

Gametogenesis –Oogenesis:  Gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes. It is divided into two parts - Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis. Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperms and Oogenesis is the formation of egg or ova.

The process of formation of mature female gamete is called oogenesis.   It is divided into following stages ;

a)Multiplication Phase

b)Growth Phase

c) Maturation phase

Multiplication Phase –At the time of fetus development inside the mother’s womb there is the occurrence of another development in female that is the development of Egg mother cells or oogonia. No more oogonia are formed and added after birth. The egg mother cells or oogonia are larger cells with large nuclei and other constituents. These cells undergo mitosis division and increases in number. Oogonia are diploid or 2n having 46 chromosomes. Oogonial cells after the formation in huge number project into the stroma as a cord then becomes a round mass called the egg nest. One of the cell of the egg nest grows and becomes the primary oocytes. It is the future ovum. Other oogonia surrounds around the primary oocytes   to protect and give nourishment. Primary oocytes cells starts division and enters into the prophase I of the meiotic division but get temporarily arrested at this stage.

Growth Phase- In the growth phase development of primary oocytes takes place. Here along with the development of primary oocytes , follicle development also takes place. So this phase shows the development of Graulosa cells, Primary follicles, theca cells , secondary follicles etc.  It is a very long phase.

Maturation phase : In this phase, Primary oocytes completes its first meiosis and then second meiosis. In meiosis cell division there is the occurrence of 4 cells, here also it occurs but are all the cells that are formed not same. Out the four cells that develop here, 3 are small and is called as polar bodies and one is only big that is the egg or ootid.

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